Positivism Theory Essay Example for Free

Positivism Theory Essay Positivism, (also referred to as ‘empiricism’) is often used to indicate that this approach to understanding criminality is scientific. The term positivism (or in its more sophisticated form Logical Positivism) is often used to refer to an approach that asserts it utilizes science or the scientific method (their version of science) to understand the causes of criminality and thus the solutions to solving it. Positivism is an epistemological position or a theory of knowledge which assets that science is based upon theories that have been induced from and only from empirical evidence or the evidence of the senses (hence the term ‘empirical’ or that which can be experienced by the senses). Positivists reject any evidence that cannot be objectively experienced or observed such as that derived from tradition, faith, magic, religion, philosophy or any other form of knowledge or belief that does not have an empirical basis. Thus they want to explain criminal behaviour by reference to causes that can be observed or measured. Causes have to be material and observable – biological positivists look at biological observables such as anatomical abnormalities, identifiable genetic or gene patterns, bodily movements etc. Psychological positivists will also look at biological observables but will add behavioural factors, child rearing practices and brain abnormalities that cause identifiable behaviour outcomes. Many modern scientists have virtually discredited positivism in favour of what we call the hypothetico-deductionist approach or a falsficationist approach. This approach begins with theoretical conjectures (or hypotheses) and then seeks to prove or disprove them by means of empirical evidence. However, whatever the differences in method both positivism and hypothetico-deductionism seek empirical evidence for their theoretical positions. Implicit in these approaches is the idea that the scientist is an objective disinterested observer of natural events with no preconceptions about them. In the case of physics these natural events or laws are said to be found in nature itself as, for example, in the study of such phenomena as the movement of the planets around the Sun, the effect of gravity on the tides and the phenomenon of the seasons created by the movement of the Earth around the Sun. In these cases the object of study is seen as governed by universal natural laws which the scientist has to discover. When this approach is applied in the human or social sciences we have to understand our object of study (i. e. human beings or societies) as also governed or regulated by rules that the scientist has to discover. Thus Biological Criminologists will use data from such sources as twin studies, family studies, genetic patterns, biochemical aspects and so on anything that can be studied by means of objective’, methods and which may throw up some biological explanation of that behaviour or a principle or a law that explains that behaviour. It follows that in positivist criminality, criminals are identified as certain kinds Of human beings who are governed by events or natural phenomena that have been set in place by something external to them and, in a sense, beyond their control. Thus criminals do not make decisions about their criminal behaviour they are, as it were, caused to behave in this way by factors that operate in a sense, behind their backs. Thus, so-called abstract views of human nature such as that they are rational and use reason in making choices about their actions have to be discarded as a cause of behaviour in favour of non-rational causes such as determination by such things as biological inheritance or forms of social conditioning or, in many cases, a combination of both (as in Eysenck). Positivists aim is to identify those with criminal tendencies or those already classified as criminals and use them as their data base. Their goal is to ascertain what has caused their criminality and then to look for ways of correcting such criminality or, even better, to ascertain those with tendencies for criminality (before hopefully they commit a crime) and to put some preventative measures in place. Biological positivists generally look for biological causes generally in genetic inheritance. A well know example is that of Klinenfelters Syndrome where a study of known criminals identified was said to be an extra y chromosome.

Friendship in Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn :: Adventures Huckleberry Huck Finn Essays

Huckleberry Finn - Friendship Mark Twain illustrates the theme of friendship through the characters Huck and Jim. Their friendship was created when Huck and Jim were put together due to common circumstances that take place throughout the novel. The friendship that was formed was constantly undergoing changes. Towards the end of the book the relationship that once existed as a simple friendship grew in to a father and son relationship. Huck and Jim were tools that Twain used to show just how the theme of friendship developed. Huck and Jim were both running away from society for one reason or another. Huck was running in order to escape from the constraints of society and conformity, while Jim was trying to keep from being sold to another owner. At the time of their escape it was easy and convenient for the two of them to be together. "The nigger run off the very night Huck Finn was killed"...This quote explains what the two did in order to get away from society. The pair decided the best way was to run away from it all. Huck and Jim's friendship undergoes many twists and turns along with the trip the two take down the Mississippi River. With each adventure their friendship grew stronger and deeper from their encounter with the Duke and the King to the riverboat scene the friendship is built one building block at a time. Throughout the novel Jim makes references to the kindness that Huck shows him, but Huck seems oblivious to their new found friendship. "Dah you goes, de ole true Huck; de on'y white genlman"...(pg. 89) When Jim made this statement Huck realized just how much this friendship meant to Jim. The friendship between Huck and Jim is constantly changing with the chain of events. The two characters encountered many things while floating along with the pace of the Mississippi, such as making decisions. In the novel Huck was forced to make the decision whether or not he would turn Jim in because it would be the, "right thing" to do because Jim was a run-away slave. It was a close place. I took...up [the letter I'd written to Miss Watson], and held it in my hand.

Commercial surrogacy Essay

Commercial surrogacy refers to a process in which a couple or individual pays a fee to a woman, a surrogate mother, who agrees to carry and give birth to a baby on their behalf. It is an option for couples and individuals who wish to have a child, but due to circumstances, cannot have one. Surrogacy may be commercial, where the surrogate mother is paid for her services; or altruistic, where there is no payment and usually the surrogate mother is related with the commissioning couple or individual. Commercial surrogacy must be brought to an end and made illegal worldwide! Why you ask? Firstly, do those who support commercial surrogacy really take into account how dangerous it can be for the baby? Or the possible issues that may occur if something goes wrong? No, they definitely don’t! Surely if they did they wouldn’t pay a surrogate mother to do so! In addition to that, the surrogate mother are usually women who choose to be a surrogate mother living in harsh conditions within developing countries, where I will specifically be talking about women in India who are being exploited due to their unfortunate lifestyles. Finally to drive the point home, I will highlight the gruelling reality of commercial surrogacy caused by corrupt organisations that control poor women going through all the hardship in developing countries. A controversial issue in the news within the past year concerning commercial surrogacy involved this adorable little boy – which you can see in this photo – of baby Gammy, a Thai boy who is one of two twins born in India by a surrogate mother. His biological parents were Australians who claimed that they didn’t abandon him when finding out he had down-syndrome. Although, Mr and Mrs Farnell (Baby Gammy’s biological parents) claim that â€Å"they didn’t know about the other baby† which is false because, in truth there is concrete evidence that when the surrogate mother discovered she was carrying twins, the biological parents offered an additional $2,000 Australian dollars for the twin, however, when it was discovered that one of the babies had down-syndrome, the Australians told her to abort the affected twin. Just because he had a healthy twin sister, Baby Gammy was abandoned by his heartless and cruel biological parents as they refused to ta ke him back to Australia. Now, when we hear about terrible things like this happening to a  child, our natural reaction is usually to demand better protection with the hope that we can prevent situations such as this from occurring again. Because Baby Gammy was diagnosed with down-syndrome, it gives no excuse or right justification for his parents to abandon him! He may be born through surrogacy but these heartless Australians are still his biological parents, who yearned for a child and once they had their wish fulfilled, they cruelly left him. Parents who are capable of giving birth to their own children would most definitely never abandon their child after finding out they have down-syndrome. So what gives this couple the right to abandon Baby Gammy? This situation really comes to show how largely unregulated commercial surrogacy is and this is why commercial surrogacy should be made illegal in all countries. We all must bring an end to awful situations such as this from ever occurring again. Not to mention, in the future when baby Gammy grows up he would also be affected mentally, emotionally and most likely be very unstable as well due to his down-syndrome, as well as having to hear and accept that he was abandoned by his biologicals parents. Not only did this issue cause a racket as to awareness for this poor child but this issue is also seen as child â€Å"I think that is going down the wrong path as a society if children become a commodity that you can buy.† Another concerning issue involves the surrogate mothers, who are often living in developing countries with circumstances that are extremely harsh and very much unethical. The poor, illiterate women of rural backgrounds are often persuaded in such deals by their spouse or middlemen for earning easy money. These women often have no right nor better options with regards to their own body and life. In India, there is no provision of psychological screening or legal counselling and often after recruitment by co mmercial agencies, these women are shifted into hostels for the whole duration of pregnancy on the excuse of taking antenatal care. The real motive is to guard them and to avoid any social stigma of being outcast by their community. These women spend the whole tenure of pregnancy worrying about their household and children. Only being able to see their family once a week on Sundays. The worst part is that in cases of unfavourable outcome of pregnancy, they are unlikely to be paid, and there is no provision of insurance or post-pregnancy medical and psychiatric support for them. Rich career women who do not want to take the trouble of carrying their own pregnancy are  resorting to hiring surrogate mothers. There are a number of moral and ethical issues regarding surrogacy, which has become more of a commercial racket, and there is an urgent need for framing and implementation of laws for the parents and the surrogate mother. Lastly, as a poor surrogate mother gets very much needed money, an infertile couple gets their long-desired biologically related baby and the country earns foreign currency, but the real picture reveals the bitter truth. Due to lack of proper legislation, both surrogate mothers and intended parents are somehow exploited and the profit is earned by middlemen and commercial agencies. There is no transparency in the whole system, and the chance of getting involved in legal problems is there due to unpredictable regulations governing surrogacy in India. Some people may argue that surrogacy benefits a number of individuals such as parents, surrogates and the agencies who organise such arrangements. This is NOT the case. As previously stated, not all the third word women benefit adequately and furthermore commercial surrogacy involves the marketing of babies as commodities, to be bought and sold in a commercial transaction. This may have negative psychological consequences for the child in later life. The consequences of being treated as a commodity are still not known so it is unreasonable to take such a risk. Having everyone believe that women in India and other developing countries are being paid by carrying and delivering the baby is purely untruthful and deceiving towards society, deep down it’s the organisations that get all the benefit and profit. There are incidences where the child given to couple after surrogacy is not genetically related to them and in turn, is disowned by the intended parent and has to spend his life in an orphanage. http://www.smh.com.au/world/gammys-surrogate-mother-will-not-allow-david-and-wendy-farnell-to-take-her-baby-boy-20140810-102kvm.html http://www.smh.com.au/world/wendy-farnell-did-not-supply-the-egg-gammys-thai-mother-says-20140810-102joz.html

Mental Health and the Homeless Community Essay - 1103 Words

Introduction The Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] used the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ definition of mental illness as â€Å"health conditions that are characterized by alterations in thinking, mood, or behavior (or some combination thereof) associated with distress and/or impaired functioning† (2011). Our community is exposed to a large number of individuals with mental illness. Among those individuals are the widespread homeless populations. The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development reported â€Å"twenty-five percent of the sheltered homeless report a severe mental illness (as cited in Allender, Rector and Warner 2014 p. 907).† This author found the target population to be predominantly†¦show more content†¦199-200). The concept of aiding the recipient who is unable to follow the proper directions of a prescribed medication is a contributing factor to the successful treatment of mental illness. This is especially true with the homeless population. Most homeless people lack insurance and healthcare services, which necessitate the use of the emergency room as their primary venue of medical assistance. When people do not have the access that they need to meet the medical demands for their illness, then that illness will remain stagnant. Because most homeless people do not have health insurance, this limits their access to the necessary doctors, or hospitals in which they can receive the proper care. Due to this flourishing issue, many communities have instituted services that operate specifically to help the homeless population with mental illness. Individual While the environmental factors place a significant role on identifying the variables that impact a community, the individual factors are what define the problem more closely. 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